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Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012 Dec 11; 109(50): 20254-20259.
Published online 2011 Jul 5. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1105165108
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PMID: 21730177
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AbstractIn response to the urgent need for estimates of the oil and gas flow rate from the Macondo well MC252-1 blowout, we assembled a small team and carried out oil and gas flow simulations using the TOUGH2 codes over two weeks in mid-2010. The conceptual model included the oil reservoir and the well with a top boundary condition located at the bottom of the blowout preventer. We developed a fluid properties module (Eoil) applicable to a simple two-phase and two-component oil-gas system. The flow of oil and gas was simulated using T2Well, a coupled reservoir-wellbore flow model, along with iTOUGH2 for sensitivity analysis and uncertainty quantification. The most likely oil flow rate estimated from simulations based on the data available in early June 2010 was about 100,000 bbl/d (barrels per day) with a corresponding gas flow rate of 300 MMscf/d (million standard cubic feet per day) assuming the well was open to the reservoir over 30 m of thickness. A Monte Carlo analysis of reservoir and fluid properties provided an uncertainty distribution with a long tail extending down to 60,000 bbl/d of oil (170 MMscf/d of gas). The flow rate was most strongly sensitive to reservoir permeability. Conceptual model uncertainty was also significant, particularly with regard to the length of the well that was open to the reservoir. For fluid-entry interval length of 1.5 m, the oil flow rate was about 56,000 bbl/d. Sensitivity analyses showed that flow rate was not very sensitive to pressure-drop across the blowout preventer due to the interplay between gas exsolution and oil flow rate.
Keywords: Gulf oil spill, wellbore-reservoir coupling, phase interference
On April 20, 2010, the Macondo well MC252-1 drilled from the Deepwater Horizon floating platform in the Gulf of Mexico suffered a blowout. Eleven people were killed by the explosion and fire on the platform shortly after the blowout, and the platform sank 2 d later. The failure of the blowout preventer (BOP) mounted on the wellhead at the seafloor allowed oil and gas to flow directly into the sea out of the mangled riser pipe, which would normally convey oil from the well to the platform. Later the riser pipe was cut off, and oil and gas flowed directly into the sea out the top of the BOP. These details were displayed to the public in unprecedented fashion in real time over the internet by live video feeds from several remotely operated vehicles. Attention was focused in the first days and weeks after the blowout on devising strategies to stop the flow of oil. But as various strategies to stop the uncontrolled release were attempted and abandoned as unsuccessful, interest grew in estimating the magnitude of the oil and gas discharge into the marine environment. This information would be critical for addressing the environmental consequences of the oil and gas release, for developing engineering solutions for a temporary containment cap, and for evaluating the liability of the operating companies for environmental damage. The Flow-Rate Technical Group (FRTG) was established by the National Incident Commander (Admiral Thad Allen) on May 19, 2010, to estimate the oil flow rate. One component of the FRTG effort was assigned to a subgroup called the Nodal Team comprising investigators from the US Department of Energy National Laboratories (NETL, LLNL, LANL, PNNL, and LBNL), who were charged with making an independent estimate of the oil flow rate based on the physical properties and behavior of the reservoir fluids, wellbore, and seafloor attachments such as the BOP and riser pipe as constrained by the limited data at hand, such as reservoir pressure, temperature, and fluid composition, along with various assumptions about flow pathways through the well, annulus, BOP, and riser pipe. The approach used was numerical simulation of the flow of oil and gas from the reservoir, up the well, and into the marine environment based on the physics of two-phase flow in permeable media and the well, as opposed to direct measurements based on seafloor, sea surface, or aerial observations. In this paper, we describe the work carried out by the LBNL team during the two weeks from the end of May to the middle of June 2010. Our work utilized various LBNL modeling tools, some of which we have been developing and using for more than 20 y for applications such as subsurface contamination by nonaqueous liquids, geothermal energy production, geologic carbon dioxide sequestration, nuclear waste disposal, and environmental hydrology. Despite the fact that we have not previously worked in the area of estimating oil flow in wells, our experience with multiphase flow and the LBNL computational tools facilitated relatively easy adaptations applicable to this urgent need for an oil flow-rate estimate. While the charge to the Nodal Team was to estimate the oil flow rate, the natural (solution) gas component was known to make up a large part of the fluid leaking out of the BOP and was included as a fundamental part of our conceptual model. The behavior of the oil-gas system, which changes from single-phase liquid oil at the high pressures of the deep oil reservoir, to a two-phase oil-gas mixture in the well and at the seafloor as the pressure decreases, turned out to play an important role in controlling oil flow rate, as we will describe below. Although largely ignored during the early period of hydrocarbon release to the sea, the gas component was a large fraction of the total hydrocarbons that entered the ecosystem. Because we had the capability of coupling the flow in the reservoir to that in the wellbore, and of discerning the individual gas and oil components of the flow rate, the scope of our modeling included consideration of the reservoir and the natural gas flow rate. While we focused on the coupling of the reservoir to the well, the Nodal Team explored various scenarios of flow in the well and annulus (1). In order to share with the reader a sense of the time frame in which the work was carried out and its urgency, we present the model results below in the order we obtained them, from late May to mid-June 2010. This modeling work produced a wide range of possible flow rates and pointed out the main sources of uncertainty while also quantifying the dependencies of the modeled flow rate on various aspects of the conceptual model and model properties. These sensitivities of flow rate to conceptual model and parameter values are roughly valid over the full range of likely conceptual models considered, and thus have value even if the oil flow rate is presently understood to have been at the lower end of the range we estimated in early June 2010. In addition to presenting our early estimate of the range of oil flow rates, we will present and discuss the significant role that natural gas exsolution from the oil plays in controlling flow rates. There had been little concern about the natural gas flow during the earlier part of the crisis when oil was the main concern, but the gas release is the subject of recent interest (e.g., ref. 2). ResultsWith no hard data on constrictions or resistances to flow in either the well or the BOP, we developed a conceptual model that assumes an open well from the reservoir to the bottom of the BOP (Fig. 1A). As such, our conceptual model is highly idealized and tends to produce maximal flow rates of oil and gas. With the conceptual model of Fig. 1A implemented as a two-dimensional cylindrically symmetric reservoir domain, with one-dimensional flow in the wellbore, and properties implemented into the model as shown in Fig. 1B and as given in Tables 1 and and2,2, we ran forward transient isothermal simulations of the coupled reservoir-wellbore system. We use the concept of a “fluid-entry interval” to indicate the length over which there is hydrologic coupling between the wellbore and the surrounding reservoir formation. This use of fluid-entry interval is a convenient parameterization of the resistance in the well-reservoir fluid coupling regardless of the actual nature of the coupling (e.g., damaged casing or failed cement job). (A) Conceptual model (not to scale) showing reservoir, well, and BOP with potential obstructions (drill pipe, and tubing). (B) Simplified isothermal model system (not to scale) showing reservoir pressure (Pres), temperature (Tres), and composition (Xres), variable fluid-entry interval, well, and top boundary condition representing pressure at the bottom of the BOP (PBOP). Table 1.
*http://www.energy.gov/open/documents/3.1_Item_2_Macondo_Well_07_Jun_1900.pdf †Plume Team FRTG (2010) Deepwater Horizon Release Estimate of Rate by PIV, July 21, 2010. http://www.doi.gov/deepwaterhorizon/loader.cfm?csModule=security/getfile&PageID=68011 ‡at standard conditions (1 atm, 60 °F = 0.1013 MPa, 15.5 °C) Table 2.
†Live oil refers to oil with dissolved gas. Because the nature of the opening from the reservoir into the well was unknown, we carried out a series of forward model simulations with varying fluid-entry interval. In our simulations, the oil flow rate became nearly steady by 10 d, the end time for all results shown in this paper. Each simulation required approximately 1 min on a single processor of a Linux cluster (Monte Carlo simulations were conducted in parallel on the cluster). As shown in Fig. 2, the near-steady-state oil flow rate after 10 d is a strong function of fluid-entry interval, varying from about 56,000 bbl/d for a fluid-entry interval of 1.5 m to 100,000 bbl/d for a fluid-entry interval that spans the entire 30-m thickness of the reservoir. Gas flow rate is also shown in Fig. 2 to vary from about 160 MMscf/d to 290 MMscf/d when fluid-entry interval varies from 1.5 m to 30 m. It should be noted that at the time of the MC252-1 blowout, the well had not been intentionally perforated in the reservoir, and the exact pathway by which fluids may have entered the casing was not known. Results of near-steady-state flow rates for oil (Mbbl/d) and gas (MMscf/d) as a function of fluid-entry interval in the reservoir. Simulated pressures in the reservoir for a fluid-entry interval spanning the bottom half of the reservoir are shown in Fig. 3 over 5,000 m of radial distance and 5 m of radial distance (inset). The radial extent of the model is 10 km, where a constant-pressure boundary maintains the pressure at its initial value ranging from 81.7 MPa (top of reservoir) to 82.0 MPa (bottom of reservoir). Note this and other reservoirs in the area are overpressured relative to hydrostatic conditions. As shown, pressure gradients are localized around the well and the far-field pressure is not very sensitive to the fluid-entry interval while the near-field pressure is strongly controlled by the fluid-entry interval. These results served to satisfy us that knowledge about the lateral extent of the reservoir was not critical to estimating flow rate as long as the radius was larger than about 1–2 km. Variation of reservoir pressure over 5 km of radial distance (distance from wellbore) and 5 m of radial distance (inset) in the reservoir under conditions of flowing oil for fluid-entry interval spanning the lower one-half of the reservoir. Initial reservoir pressure is hydrostatic from 81.7 (top) to 82.0 MPa (bottom). We varied the main unknown parameters as shown in Table 3 while holding the fluid-entry interval at a value of 30 m (full reservoir thickness), a conservative assumption that will maximize flow rate. Results of 500 Monte Carlo simulations are shown in Fig. 4. The resulting distribution shows the most likely result is 105,000 bbl/d with a long tail extending down to around 65,000 bbl/d. The simulations showed strong sensitivity to reservoir permeability and gas-oil ratio (GOR). We note that our model reservoir is assumed to be 30.5 m thick with uniform permeability across this thickness whereas the actual reservoir likely has intervals of high and low permeability, which would cause the reservoir to appear to have lower effective permeability. Results of 500 Monte Carlo simulations with parameter distributions shown in Table 3 showing most likely flow rate of 105,000 bbl/d. Table 3.Uncertain parameters and distributions for uncertainty quantification
We present in Fig. 5 results of a sensitivity analysis of the oil flow rate as a function of reservoir permeability and GOR. A total of 1,600 forward simulations were carried out to produce the contoured surfaces of oil flow rate. The results of Fig. 5 verify intuition in that high reservoir permeability always increases oil flow rate. Simply put, the more easily the oil flows through the reservoir, the more oil can leak up the well. However, there is more interesting behavior at constant reservoir permeability as a function of GOR, which is the ratio of the volume of free gas that exsolves from a given volume of oil at standard conditions and is most commonly given in units of standard cubic feet per stock-tank barrel (scf/STB). Gas solubility increases with pressure such that oil in the reservoir is single-phase but becomes two-phase as gas exsolves during oil rise and depressurization in the well. Fig. 5 shows that there is a maximum in oil flow rate at a GOR of approximately 1,100 scf/STB for reservoir permeability greater than about 0.2 Darcy (2 × 10-13 m2). In contrast, the gas flow rate (not shown) monotonically increases with GOR for all permeabilities reflecting the fact that the more gas is present, the more gas can flow up the well. The interesting behavior revealed in Fig. 5 was investigated further as discussed in the next paragraph. Oil flow rate as a function of reservoir permeability and gas-oil ratio for PBOP = 4,400 psia (30 MPa). The unexpected effects of phase interference of gas and oil were revealed by the relatively sophisticated process model we used. The first aspect of the problem that needs to be explained to understand the effect is the role of the top boundary pressure condition. We simplified the unknown flow geometry and resistances of the BOP into a simple pressure boundary condition called PBOP. If PBOP were equal to the pressure at the seafloor, it would imply that the resistances in the BOP are negligible. At the other end of the spectrum, if PBOP were very high, approximately equal to the reservoir pressure minus the pressure due to the hydrostatic column of oil and gas in the well, it would imply the resistance of the flow in the BOP is very large (e.g., rams in the BOP effectively blocking flow). Because the condition of the BOP was not known, we carried out multiple simulations to examine the effect of PBOP. At first glance, it would seem that the main effect of PBOP would be to control the oil flow rate. That is, if the PBOP is nearly equal to the seafloor pressure, the overall driving force for oil from the reservoir would be large and the flow rate correspondingly large. On the other hand, for PBOP equal to Pres minus the pressure due to the weight of oil and gas in the well, there would be no flow at all. However, as suggested by Fig. 5, the situation may not be so simple because of the role of gas exsolution. We present in Fig. 6 flow rates of dead oil (no gas), and oil (with dissolved gas), along with gas flow rate and gas saturation (fraction of gas phase in the two-phase mixture) as a function of PBOP for GOR = 3,000 scf/STB for a fluid-entry interval spanning one-half the reservoir thickness. The gas flow rates are shown for the gas phase itself (free-phase) and for dissolved gas (component). The surprising observation of interest here is the relative lack of dependence of oil flow rate on PBOP until PBOP equals about 6,600 psia (pounds-force per square inch, absolute) (45 MPa), which is the pressure at which no gas exsolves. Oil flow rate, gas saturation, and gas flow rate as a function of PBOP, for GOR = 3,000 scf/STB. The PBOP range shown extends from sea-floor pressure (no flow restrictions in BOP) to an arbitrary pressure of 8,000 psia. There are multiple processes playing off one another in controlling the oil and gas flow rates over the range of PBOP greater than 2,200 psia and less than 6,600 psia (15 MPa < PBOP < 45 MPa). First, the driving force for upward flow in the well decreases for larger PBOP, and second, less gas exsolves for larger PBOP. The effect of less gas exsolution is twofold: (i) less phase interference results in greater oil flow; and (ii) the column contains less gas and therefore exerts a greater hydrostatic pressure against the reservoir. For PBOP less than 6,600 psia (45 MPa), gas exsolves in the well interfering with oil flow while also reducing the weight of the column which tends to enhance the oil flow. The gas saturation curve in Fig. 6 shows that for PBOP greater than 6,600 psia (45 MPa), no gas exsolves, resulting in the oil flow rate declining sharply because there is less driving force and no gas phase interference. For a hypothetical dead oil (no dissolved gas), the flow rate declines steadily as PBOP increases. In summary, if gas exsolves from the oil, the oil flow rate declines as PBOP increases (less driving force), but this decline is gentle because of the compensating effect of less gas exsolving as PBOP increases. The relative insensitivity of oil flow rate to PBOP was not anticipated, and underscores the importance of modeling coupled processes to capture potential interplay between processes. DiscussionOur estimates of oil and gas flow rate span a wide range due to multiple uncertainties, most notable of which are length of well open to the reservoir (fluid-entry interval), reservoir permeability, and pressure at the bottom of the BOP. In early August 2010, the final estimates of the larger FRTG from independent analyses and observations were given as 62,200 bbl/d upon initial blowout in April, declining to 52,700 bbl/d just before the well was effectively capped in mid-July. These values are within the range of estimates established by our team as presented above. The decrease in flow rate over time was attributed to pressure depletion in the reservoir as oil and gas leaked out (3). Through comparison of the final independent modeling and observation-based estimates of the FRTG participants, our sensitivity analysis to fluid-entry interval suggested that the well was likely open to the reservoir over only a small interval (1–2 m or so of well pipe length), or involved fluid entry through a narrow opening, e.g., through a collapsed casing. Furthermore, the oil flow rate was only weakly controlled by the pressure at the bottom of the BOP due to interplay between PBOP and gas exsolution. Assuming a GOR of 3,000 scf/STB, the gas flow rate is estimated at about 160 MMscf/d. MethodsData Gathering.Data gathering for conceptual model development was carried out under the pressure of a short deadline for making an estimate of oil flow rate. One of the challenges was that there was no single repository of data available but rather bits of information from various sources. Furthermore, our Nodal Team group was not privy to the proprietary data being shared with other DOE engineers and scientists who were onsite at the Houston facility managing the spill control effort. Through telephone conference calls and emails with National Lab team colleagues, web searching, and the literature, we were able to develop rough estimates of the well, reservoir, and fluid properties. There were three major gaps in knowledge about the system: (i) the condition of the well and its connectivity to the reservoir; (ii) the actual flow path up the well, i.e., whether flow was within the casing or within the annulus or some combination; and (iii) the flow path of oil and gas in the BOP. Regarding the first major uncertainty, the well had not been intentionally perforated in the reservoir. This lack of intentional perforation meant that damage to the casing or a failed cement job had led to reservoir fluids entering the well, and the extent and geometry of this reservoir-well connection was unknown except to the extent that significant flow rates of oil and gas were sustained through it. The flow path up the well was also not known, but because the well could clearly sustain significant flow, we assumed the simplest geometry for flow up the well, namely, flow in a round pipe. Similarly, whether or not the various rams in the BOP had deployed and to what extent was unknown except that it was not sealing the well against leakage. The other major data gap was any information about or measurement of pressure of the oil and gas as it leaked out of the riser pipe and later the top of the BOP. We assembled available data on seafloor conditions, well characteristics, reservoir properties, and fluid properties, while leaving the major data gaps as targets of sensitivity studies for the simulations. Assembling the Model Components.TOUGH2.The computational foundation of our simulation effort was LBNL’s nonisothermal, multiphase and multicomponent reservoir simulator TOUGH2 (4, 5). TOUGH2 uses an integral finite difference (i.e., finite volume) method to solve a multiphase version of Darcy’s Law, with mass and heat transport by advection and diffusion. Implicit time stepping is used along with Newton’s method for handling nonlinearity within each time step. As long-time developers and users of TOUGH2, we were able to quickly modify the code and adapt useful add-ons developed over the years for other applications to address the urgent need to estimate an oil and gas flow-rate. The additions to TOUGH2 and model components that we used for the oil and gas flow-rate estimate are described below. Eoil.The only new code development activity required was development of a new Equation of State (EOS) module for TOUGH2. Given the short time frame, our approach was to approximate oil as a single-component liquid with a dissolved volatile component (natural gas) that would form a separate phase depending on pressure, temperature, and mass fraction of dissolved gas in the oil phase. The fluid properties that need to be calculated by Eoil are oil density, viscosity, and solubility of natural gas as functions of pressure, temperature, and gas-mixture composition. A note on units.The oil industry developed first in North America and as such a combination of English units and miscellaneous nonmetric nomenclature specific to oil and gas properties evolved and remains widely used in the industry worldwide. While metric equivalents are provided where practical, there are some units (e.g., API gravity, Darcy, pounds per square foot, barrels, and standard cubic feet) and nomenclature (e.g., M = one thousand) that we use without conversion because they are widely used and understood in the oil and gas community. Oil density.The density of oil without dissolved gas (so-called dead oil) as a function of P and T was modeled in Eoil using standard exponential relations as shown in Table 2. The density of single-phase oil in the reservoir (ρores) is assumed to be 970 kg m-3, and the fitting parameters for the relations in Table 2 were chosen to approximate the oil density for the range of conditions at the Macondo well. The model used for density of oil with dissolved gas (so-called live oil) is a simple additive volume relation as shown in Table 2 where Xgas is the mass fraction of the gas component dissolved in the oil phase. Oil viscosity.Oil viscosity (in cP) was modeled in Eoil using the approach of Beggs and Robinson (7) as a function of temperature (°F), API gravity, and amount of dissolved gas [as given by solution gas-oil ratio (SGOR) SGOR = Rs where Rs[ = ]scf/STB]. The relations shown in Table 2 were used with constants derived from limited available data. All of the simulations presented here are for isothermal conditions. This approximation is appropriate for conditions where temperature gradients along the wellbore are obliterated by the rapid and near-steady-state upflow of oil. Solubility of natural gas.The solubility of natural gas in oil is given by the SGOR which has units of standard cubic feet per stock-tank barrel (scf/STB). The SGOR is the amount of natural gas contained as a dissolved component in a given volume of oil at any P and T. The variation in gas solubility as a function of pressure and temperature can be approximated by an exponential function with fitting parameters as shown in Table 2. Gas properties.To model density and viscosity of the gas phase, we make use of LBNL’s WebGasEOS routines (http://esdtools.lbl.gov/gaseos/) (8). We approximate solution gas as pure methane and use the Soave-Redlich-Kwong equation of state to calculate gas density as a function of P and T with a multiplier to adjust to an approximate gas mixture assuming the composition is primarily methane with minor butane, ethane, CO2, and N2. Gas viscosity is calculated using the method of Chung et al. (9), assuming the gas is pure CH4. T2Well.While the foundation of the simulation effort described here is TOUGH2, the key process model component that sets this effort apart from the work of other groups in the FRTG is T2Well (10), which provides wellbore flow simulation capabilities for TOUGH2. With T2Well, all of the reservoir simulation capabilities of TOUGH2 are coupled to a one-dimensional drift-flux model for wellbore flow. This capability was originally developed for geologic carbon dioxide sequestration studies, with the fluid components being CO2 and saline water, but T2Well can be used with any two-phase TOUGH2 EOS module. Once Eoil was completed, we coupled it with T2Well and ran the fully coupled flow of oil and gas in the reservoir and into and up the wellbore to the top of the system at the bottom of the BOP. iTOUGH2.Rounding out the simulation components we used for estimating the oil and gas flow rate is the iTOUGH2 code with uncertainty and sensitivity analysis capabilities (11, 12). Briefly, iTOUGH2 is a wrapper around the codes described above that calls the forward model repeatedly while varying key input parameters to produce multiple results as a function of input parameter variations. We used iTOUGH2 in two modes in the analysis: (i) to calculate local and global sensitivities to input parameters, and (ii) to carry out Monte Carlo simulations for quantifying the uncertainty in the predicted flow rate. Insights on global sensitivities were gained by evaluating simulation results for many parameter combinations over selected cross-sections in the parameter space. The Monte Carlo simulations are done assuming various distributions for the uncertain parameters (see Table 3) and carrying out multiple simulations using random combinations of these parameters. The results allow quantification of the uncertainty in the model predictions. With several poorly constrained parameters and uncertain conceptual model elements, we varied properties of the reservoir, well, and fluids to quantify the uncertainty in our predictions as described in Results. Acknowledgments.We thank George Guthrie and Grant Bromhal (NETL) for leadership and organization of the Nodal Team, and Maria Barrufet (Texas A and M University) for advice on fluid property models. We also thank Christine Doughty (LBNL) and two anonymous reviewers for detailed review comments and helpful suggestions on earlier drafts. This work was supported by a Work for Others agreement through the National Energy Technology Laboratory, of the Department of Energy under Contract IW007439; and by the Assistant Secretary for Fossil Energy, Office of Natural Gas and Petroleum Technology, of the Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231. FootnotesThe authors declare no conflict of interest. *This Direct Submission article had a prearranged editor. References
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Articles from Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America are provided here courtesy of National Academy of Sciences
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012 Dec 11; 109(50): 20254-20259.
Published online 2011 Jul 5. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1105165108
PMID: 21730177
This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.
AbstractIn response to the urgent need for estimates of the oil and gas flow rate from the Macondo well MC252-1 blowout, we assembled a small team and carried out oil and gas flow simulations using the TOUGH2 codes over two weeks in mid-2010. The conceptual model included the oil reservoir and the well with a top boundary condition located at the bottom of the blowout preventer. We developed a fluid properties module (Eoil) applicable to a simple two-phase and two-component oil-gas system. The flow of oil and gas was simulated using T2Well, a coupled reservoir-wellbore flow model, along with iTOUGH2 for sensitivity analysis and uncertainty quantification. The most likely oil flow rate estimated from simulations based on the data available in early June 2010 was about 100,000 bbl/d (barrels per day) with a corresponding gas flow rate of 300 MMscf/d (million standard cubic feet per day) assuming the well was open to the reservoir over 30 m of thickness. A Monte Carlo analysis of reservoir and fluid properties provided an uncertainty distribution with a long tail extending down to 60,000 bbl/d of oil (170 MMscf/d of gas). The flow rate was most strongly sensitive to reservoir permeability. Conceptual model uncertainty was also significant, particularly with regard to the length of the well that was open to the reservoir. For fluid-entry interval length of 1.5 m, the oil flow rate was about 56,000 bbl/d. Sensitivity analyses showed that flow rate was not very sensitive to pressure-drop across the blowout preventer due to the interplay between gas exsolution and oil flow rate.
Keywords: Gulf oil spill, wellbore-reservoir coupling, phase interference
On April 20, 2010, the Macondo well MC252-1 drilled from the Deepwater Horizon floating platform in the Gulf of Mexico suffered a blowout. Eleven people were killed by the explosion and fire on the platform shortly after the blowout, and the platform sank 2 d later. The failure of the blowout preventer (BOP) mounted on the wellhead at the seafloor allowed oil and gas to flow directly into the sea out of the mangled riser pipe, which would normally convey oil from the well to the platform. Later the riser pipe was cut off, and oil and gas flowed directly into the sea out the top of the BOP. These details were displayed to the public in unprecedented fashion in real time over the internet by live video feeds from several remotely operated vehicles. Attention was focused in the first days and weeks after the blowout on devising strategies to stop the flow of oil. But as various strategies to stop the uncontrolled release were attempted and abandoned as unsuccessful, interest grew in estimating the magnitude of the oil and gas discharge into the marine environment. This information would be critical for addressing the environmental consequences of the oil and gas release, for developing engineering solutions for a temporary containment cap, and for evaluating the liability of the operating companies for environmental damage. The Flow-Rate Technical Group (FRTG) was established by the National Incident Commander (Admiral Thad Allen) on May 19, 2010, to estimate the oil flow rate. One component of the FRTG effort was assigned to a subgroup called the Nodal Team comprising investigators from the US Department of Energy National Laboratories (NETL, LLNL, LANL, PNNL, and LBNL), who were charged with making an independent estimate of the oil flow rate based on the physical properties and behavior of the reservoir fluids, wellbore, and seafloor attachments such as the BOP and riser pipe as constrained by the limited data at hand, such as reservoir pressure, temperature, and fluid composition, along with various assumptions about flow pathways through the well, annulus, BOP, and riser pipe. The approach used was numerical simulation of the flow of oil and gas from the reservoir, up the well, and into the marine environment based on the physics of two-phase flow in permeable media and the well, as opposed to direct measurements based on seafloor, sea surface, or aerial observations. In this paper, we describe the work carried out by the LBNL team during the two weeks from the end of May to the middle of June 2010. Our work utilized various LBNL modeling tools, some of which we have been developing and using for more than 20 y for applications such as subsurface contamination by nonaqueous liquids, geothermal energy production, geologic carbon dioxide sequestration, nuclear waste disposal, and environmental hydrology. Despite the fact that we have not previously worked in the area of estimating oil flow in wells, our experience with multiphase flow and the LBNL computational tools facilitated relatively easy adaptations applicable to this urgent need for an oil flow-rate estimate. While the charge to the Nodal Team was to estimate the oil flow rate, the natural (solution) gas component was known to make up a large part of the fluid leaking out of the BOP and was included as a fundamental part of our conceptual model. The behavior of the oil-gas system, which changes from single-phase liquid oil at the high pressures of the deep oil reservoir, to a two-phase oil-gas mixture in the well and at the seafloor as the pressure decreases, turned out to play an important role in controlling oil flow rate, as we will describe below. Although largely ignored during the early period of hydrocarbon release to the sea, the gas component was a large fraction of the total hydrocarbons that entered the ecosystem. Because we had the capability of coupling the flow in the reservoir to that in the wellbore, and of discerning the individual gas and oil components of the flow rate, the scope of our modeling included consideration of the reservoir and the natural gas flow rate. While we focused on the coupling of the reservoir to the well, the Nodal Team explored various scenarios of flow in the well and annulus (1). In order to share with the reader a sense of the time frame in which the work was carried out and its urgency, we present the model results below in the order we obtained them, from late May to mid-June 2010. This modeling work produced a wide range of possible flow rates and pointed out the main sources of uncertainty while also quantifying the dependencies of the modeled flow rate on various aspects of the conceptual model and model properties. These sensitivities of flow rate to conceptual model and parameter values are roughly valid over the full range of likely conceptual models considered, and thus have value even if the oil flow rate is presently understood to have been at the lower end of the range we estimated in early June 2010. In addition to presenting our early estimate of the range of oil flow rates, we will present and discuss the significant role that natural gas exsolution from the oil plays in controlling flow rates. There had been little concern about the natural gas flow during the earlier part of the crisis when oil was the main concern, but the gas release is the subject of recent interest (e.g., ref. 2). ResultsWith no hard data on constrictions or resistances to flow in either the well or the BOP, we developed a conceptual model that assumes an open well from the reservoir to the bottom of the BOP (Fig. 1A). As such, our conceptual model is highly idealized and tends to produce maximal flow rates of oil and gas. With the conceptual model of Fig. 1A implemented as a two-dimensional cylindrically symmetric reservoir domain, with one-dimensional flow in the wellbore, and properties implemented into the model as shown in Fig. 1B and as given in Tables 1 and and2,2, we ran forward transient isothermal simulations of the coupled reservoir-wellbore system. We use the concept of a “fluid-entry interval” to indicate the length over which there is hydrologic coupling between the wellbore and the surrounding reservoir formation. This use of fluid-entry interval is a convenient parameterization of the resistance in the well-reservoir fluid coupling regardless of the actual nature of the coupling (e.g., damaged casing or failed cement job). (A) Conceptual model (not to scale) showing reservoir, well, and BOP with potential obstructions (drill pipe, and tubing). (B) Simplified isothermal model system (not to scale) showing reservoir pressure (Pres), temperature (Tres), and composition (Xres), variable fluid-entry interval, well, and top boundary condition representing pressure at the bottom of the BOP (PBOP). Table 1.
*http://www.energy.gov/open/documents/3.1_Item_2_Macondo_Well_07_Jun_1900.pdf †Plume Team FRTG (2010) Deepwater Horizon Release Estimate of Rate by PIV, July 21, 2010. http://www.doi.gov/deepwaterhorizon/loader.cfm?csModule=security/getfile&PageID=68011 ‡at standard conditions (1 atm, 60 °F = 0.1013 MPa, 15.5 °C) Table 2.
†Live oil refers to oil with dissolved gas. Because the nature of the opening from the reservoir into the well was unknown, we carried out a series of forward model simulations with varying fluid-entry interval. In our simulations, the oil flow rate became nearly steady by 10 d, the end time for all results shown in this paper. Each simulation required approximately 1 min on a single processor of a Linux cluster (Monte Carlo simulations were conducted in parallel on the cluster). As shown in Fig. 2, the near-steady-state oil flow rate after 10 d is a strong function of fluid-entry interval, varying from about 56,000 bbl/d for a fluid-entry interval of 1.5 m to 100,000 bbl/d for a fluid-entry interval that spans the entire 30-m thickness of the reservoir. Gas flow rate is also shown in Fig. 2 to vary from about 160 MMscf/d to 290 MMscf/d when fluid-entry interval varies from 1.5 m to 30 m. It should be noted that at the time of the MC252-1 blowout, the well had not been intentionally perforated in the reservoir, and the exact pathway by which fluids may have entered the casing was not known. Results of near-steady-state flow rates for oil (Mbbl/d) and gas (MMscf/d) as a function of fluid-entry interval in the reservoir. Simulated pressures in the reservoir for a fluid-entry interval spanning the bottom half of the reservoir are shown in Fig. 3 over 5,000 m of radial distance and 5 m of radial distance (inset). The radial extent of the model is 10 km, where a constant-pressure boundary maintains the pressure at its initial value ranging from 81.7 MPa (top of reservoir) to 82.0 MPa (bottom of reservoir). Note this and other reservoirs in the area are overpressured relative to hydrostatic conditions. As shown, pressure gradients are localized around the well and the far-field pressure is not very sensitive to the fluid-entry interval while the near-field pressure is strongly controlled by the fluid-entry interval. These results served to satisfy us that knowledge about the lateral extent of the reservoir was not critical to estimating flow rate as long as the radius was larger than about 1–2 km. Variation of reservoir pressure over 5 km of radial distance (distance from wellbore) and 5 m of radial distance (inset) in the reservoir under conditions of flowing oil for fluid-entry interval spanning the lower one-half of the reservoir. Initial reservoir pressure is hydrostatic from 81.7 (top) to 82.0 MPa (bottom). We varied the main unknown parameters as shown in Table 3 while holding the fluid-entry interval at a value of 30 m (full reservoir thickness), a conservative assumption that will maximize flow rate. Results of 500 Monte Carlo simulations are shown in Fig. 4. The resulting distribution shows the most likely result is 105,000 bbl/d with a long tail extending down to around 65,000 bbl/d. The simulations showed strong sensitivity to reservoir permeability and gas-oil ratio (GOR). We note that our model reservoir is assumed to be 30.5 m thick with uniform permeability across this thickness whereas the actual reservoir likely has intervals of high and low permeability, which would cause the reservoir to appear to have lower effective permeability. Results of 500 Monte Carlo simulations with parameter distributions shown in Table 3 showing most likely flow rate of 105,000 bbl/d. Table 3.Uncertain parameters and distributions for uncertainty quantification
We present in Fig. 5 results of a sensitivity analysis of the oil flow rate as a function of reservoir permeability and GOR. A total of 1,600 forward simulations were carried out to produce the contoured surfaces of oil flow rate. The results of Fig. 5 verify intuition in that high reservoir permeability always increases oil flow rate. Simply put, the more easily the oil flows through the reservoir, the more oil can leak up the well. However, there is more interesting behavior at constant reservoir permeability as a function of GOR, which is the ratio of the volume of free gas that exsolves from a given volume of oil at standard conditions and is most commonly given in units of standard cubic feet per stock-tank barrel (scf/STB). Gas solubility increases with pressure such that oil in the reservoir is single-phase but becomes two-phase as gas exsolves during oil rise and depressurization in the well. Fig. 5 shows that there is a maximum in oil flow rate at a GOR of approximately 1,100 scf/STB for reservoir permeability greater than about 0.2 Darcy (2 × 10-13 m2). In contrast, the gas flow rate (not shown) monotonically increases with GOR for all permeabilities reflecting the fact that the more gas is present, the more gas can flow up the well. The interesting behavior revealed in Fig. 5 was investigated further as discussed in the next paragraph. Oil flow rate as a function of reservoir permeability and gas-oil ratio for PBOP = 4,400 psia (30 MPa). The unexpected effects of phase interference of gas and oil were revealed by the relatively sophisticated process model we used. The first aspect of the problem that needs to be explained to understand the effect is the role of the top boundary pressure condition. We simplified the unknown flow geometry and resistances of the BOP into a simple pressure boundary condition called PBOP. If PBOP were equal to the pressure at the seafloor, it would imply that the resistances in the BOP are negligible. At the other end of the spectrum, if PBOP were very high, approximately equal to the reservoir pressure minus the pressure due to the hydrostatic column of oil and gas in the well, it would imply the resistance of the flow in the BOP is very large (e.g., rams in the BOP effectively blocking flow). Because the condition of the BOP was not known, we carried out multiple simulations to examine the effect of PBOP. At first glance, it would seem that the main effect of PBOP would be to control the oil flow rate. That is, if the PBOP is nearly equal to the seafloor pressure, the overall driving force for oil from the reservoir would be large and the flow rate correspondingly large. On the other hand, for PBOP equal to Pres minus the pressure due to the weight of oil and gas in the well, there would be no flow at all. However, as suggested by Fig. 5, the situation may not be so simple because of the role of gas exsolution. We present in Fig. 6 flow rates of dead oil (no gas), and oil (with dissolved gas), along with gas flow rate and gas saturation (fraction of gas phase in the two-phase mixture) as a function of PBOP for GOR = 3,000 scf/STB for a fluid-entry interval spanning one-half the reservoir thickness. The gas flow rates are shown for the gas phase itself (free-phase) and for dissolved gas (component). The surprising observation of interest here is the relative lack of dependence of oil flow rate on PBOP until PBOP equals about 6,600 psia (pounds-force per square inch, absolute) (45 MPa), which is the pressure at which no gas exsolves. Oil flow rate, gas saturation, and gas flow rate as a function of PBOP, for GOR = 3,000 scf/STB. The PBOP range shown extends from sea-floor pressure (no flow restrictions in BOP) to an arbitrary pressure of 8,000 psia. There are multiple processes playing off one another in controlling the oil and gas flow rates over the range of PBOP greater than 2,200 psia and less than 6,600 psia (15 MPa < PBOP < 45 MPa). First, the driving force for upward flow in the well decreases for larger PBOP, and second, less gas exsolves for larger PBOP. The effect of less gas exsolution is twofold: (i) less phase interference results in greater oil flow; and (ii) the column contains less gas and therefore exerts a greater hydrostatic pressure against the reservoir. For PBOP less than 6,600 psia (45 MPa), gas exsolves in the well interfering with oil flow while also reducing the weight of the column which tends to enhance the oil flow. The gas saturation curve in Fig. 6 shows that for PBOP greater than 6,600 psia (45 MPa), no gas exsolves, resulting in the oil flow rate declining sharply because there is less driving force and no gas phase interference. For a hypothetical dead oil (no dissolved gas), the flow rate declines steadily as PBOP increases. In summary, if gas exsolves from the oil, the oil flow rate declines as PBOP increases (less driving force), but this decline is gentle because of the compensating effect of less gas exsolving as PBOP increases. The relative insensitivity of oil flow rate to PBOP was not anticipated, and underscores the importance of modeling coupled processes to capture potential interplay between processes. DiscussionOur estimates of oil and gas flow rate span a wide range due to multiple uncertainties, most notable of which are length of well open to the reservoir (fluid-entry interval), reservoir permeability, and pressure at the bottom of the BOP. In early August 2010, the final estimates of the larger FRTG from independent analyses and observations were given as 62,200 bbl/d upon initial blowout in April, declining to 52,700 bbl/d just before the well was effectively capped in mid-July. These values are within the range of estimates established by our team as presented above. The decrease in flow rate over time was attributed to pressure depletion in the reservoir as oil and gas leaked out (3). Through comparison of the final independent modeling and observation-based estimates of the FRTG participants, our sensitivity analysis to fluid-entry interval suggested that the well was likely open to the reservoir over only a small interval (1–2 m or so of well pipe length), or involved fluid entry through a narrow opening, e.g., through a collapsed casing. Furthermore, the oil flow rate was only weakly controlled by the pressure at the bottom of the BOP due to interplay between PBOP and gas exsolution. Assuming a GOR of 3,000 scf/STB, the gas flow rate is estimated at about 160 MMscf/d. MethodsData Gathering.Data gathering for conceptual model development was carried out under the pressure of a short deadline for making an estimate of oil flow rate. One of the challenges was that there was no single repository of data available but rather bits of information from various sources. Furthermore, our Nodal Team group was not privy to the proprietary data being shared with other DOE engineers and scientists who were onsite at the Houston facility managing the spill control effort. Through telephone conference calls and emails with National Lab team colleagues, web searching, and the literature, we were able to develop rough estimates of the well, reservoir, and fluid properties. There were three major gaps in knowledge about the system: (i) the condition of the well and its connectivity to the reservoir; (ii) the actual flow path up the well, i.e., whether flow was within the casing or within the annulus or some combination; and (iii) the flow path of oil and gas in the BOP. Regarding the first major uncertainty, the well had not been intentionally perforated in the reservoir. This lack of intentional perforation meant that damage to the casing or a failed cement job had led to reservoir fluids entering the well, and the extent and geometry of this reservoir-well connection was unknown except to the extent that significant flow rates of oil and gas were sustained through it. The flow path up the well was also not known, but because the well could clearly sustain significant flow, we assumed the simplest geometry for flow up the well, namely, flow in a round pipe. Similarly, whether or not the various rams in the BOP had deployed and to what extent was unknown except that it was not sealing the well against leakage. The other major data gap was any information about or measurement of pressure of the oil and gas as it leaked out of the riser pipe and later the top of the BOP. We assembled available data on seafloor conditions, well characteristics, reservoir properties, and fluid properties, while leaving the major data gaps as targets of sensitivity studies for the simulations. Assembling the Model Components.TOUGH2.The computational foundation of our simulation effort was LBNL’s nonisothermal, multiphase and multicomponent reservoir simulator TOUGH2 (4, 5). TOUGH2 uses an integral finite difference (i.e., finite volume) method to solve a multiphase version of Darcy’s Law, with mass and heat transport by advection and diffusion. Implicit time stepping is used along with Newton’s method for handling nonlinearity within each time step. As long-time developers and users of TOUGH2, we were able to quickly modify the code and adapt useful add-ons developed over the years for other applications to address the urgent need to estimate an oil and gas flow-rate. The additions to TOUGH2 and model components that we used for the oil and gas flow-rate estimate are described below. Eoil.The only new code development activity required was development of a new Equation of State (EOS) module for TOUGH2. Given the short time frame, our approach was to approximate oil as a single-component liquid with a dissolved volatile component (natural gas) that would form a separate phase depending on pressure, temperature, and mass fraction of dissolved gas in the oil phase. The fluid properties that need to be calculated by Eoil are oil density, viscosity, and solubility of natural gas as functions of pressure, temperature, and gas-mixture composition. A note on units.The oil industry developed first in North America and as such a combination of English units and miscellaneous nonmetric nomenclature specific to oil and gas properties evolved and remains widely used in the industry worldwide. While metric equivalents are provided where practical, there are some units (e.g., API gravity, Darcy, pounds per square foot, barrels, and standard cubic feet) and nomenclature (e.g., M = one thousand) that we use without conversion because they are widely used and understood in the oil and gas community. Oil density.The density of oil without dissolved gas (so-called dead oil) as a function of P and T was modeled in Eoil using standard exponential relations as shown in Table 2. The density of single-phase oil in the reservoir (ρores) is assumed to be 970 kg m-3, and the fitting parameters for the relations in Table 2 were chosen to approximate the oil density for the range of conditions at the Macondo well. The model used for density of oil with dissolved gas (so-called live oil) is a simple additive volume relation as shown in Table 2 where Xgas is the mass fraction of the gas component dissolved in the oil phase. Oil viscosity.Oil viscosity (in cP) was modeled in Eoil using the approach of Beggs and Robinson (7) as a function of temperature (°F), API gravity, and amount of dissolved gas [as given by solution gas-oil ratio (SGOR) SGOR = Rs where Rs[ = ]scf/STB]. The relations shown in Table 2 were used with constants derived from limited available data. All of the simulations presented here are for isothermal conditions. This approximation is appropriate for conditions where temperature gradients along the wellbore are obliterated by the rapid and near-steady-state upflow of oil. Solubility of natural gas.The solubility of natural gas in oil is given by the SGOR which has units of standard cubic feet per stock-tank barrel (scf/STB). The SGOR is the amount of natural gas contained as a dissolved component in a given volume of oil at any P and T. The variation in gas solubility as a function of pressure and temperature can be approximated by an exponential function with fitting parameters as shown in Table 2. Gas properties.To model density and viscosity of the gas phase, we make use of LBNL’s WebGasEOS routines (http://esdtools.lbl.gov/gaseos/) (8). We approximate solution gas as pure methane and use the Soave-Redlich-Kwong equation of state to calculate gas density as a function of P and T with a multiplier to adjust to an approximate gas mixture assuming the composition is primarily methane with minor butane, ethane, CO2, and N2. Gas viscosity is calculated using the method of Chung et al. (9), assuming the gas is pure CH4. T2Well.While the foundation of the simulation effort described here is TOUGH2, the key process model component that sets this effort apart from the work of other groups in the FRTG is T2Well (10), which provides wellbore flow simulation capabilities for TOUGH2. With T2Well, all of the reservoir simulation capabilities of TOUGH2 are coupled to a one-dimensional drift-flux model for wellbore flow. This capability was originally developed for geologic carbon dioxide sequestration studies, with the fluid components being CO2 and saline water, but T2Well can be used with any two-phase TOUGH2 EOS module. Once Eoil was completed, we coupled it with T2Well and ran the fully coupled flow of oil and gas in the reservoir and into and up the wellbore to the top of the system at the bottom of the BOP. iTOUGH2.Rounding out the simulation components we used for estimating the oil and gas flow rate is the iTOUGH2 code with uncertainty and sensitivity analysis capabilities (11, 12). Briefly, iTOUGH2 is a wrapper around the codes described above that calls the forward model repeatedly while varying key input parameters to produce multiple results as a function of input parameter variations. We used iTOUGH2 in two modes in the analysis: (i) to calculate local and global sensitivities to input parameters, and (ii) to carry out Monte Carlo simulations for quantifying the uncertainty in the predicted flow rate. Insights on global sensitivities were gained by evaluating simulation results for many parameter combinations over selected cross-sections in the parameter space. The Monte Carlo simulations are done assuming various distributions for the uncertain parameters (see Table 3) and carrying out multiple simulations using random combinations of these parameters. The results allow quantification of the uncertainty in the model predictions. With several poorly constrained parameters and uncertain conceptual model elements, we varied properties of the reservoir, well, and fluids to quantify the uncertainty in our predictions as described in Results. Acknowledgments.We thank George Guthrie and Grant Bromhal (NETL) for leadership and organization of the Nodal Team, and Maria Barrufet (Texas A and M University) for advice on fluid property models. We also thank Christine Doughty (LBNL) and two anonymous reviewers for detailed review comments and helpful suggestions on earlier drafts. This work was supported by a Work for Others agreement through the National Energy Technology Laboratory, of the Department of Energy under Contract IW007439; and by the Assistant Secretary for Fossil Energy, Office of Natural Gas and Petroleum Technology, of the Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231. FootnotesThe authors declare no conflict of interest. *This Direct Submission article had a prearranged editor. References
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Articles from Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America are provided here courtesy of National Academy of Sciences
Thinking of buying a digital piano? Well, there are a lot of digital pianos to choose from. We've boiled down everything you need to know about digital pianos to help you pick up the best one for your needs. There are quite a few factors to bear in mind: length, size, number of keys, the number of different sounds, brand, portable or fixed and weight, all play a large part when choosing the right model for you. It could be that you don't need a digital piano, but may prefer an upright piano. Table of Contents
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Most digital pianos come with lessons that are helpful for beginners. A digital piano that comes equipped with a built-in metronome will help you to stay in rhythm. Some are also equipped with displays that show which key is being played so you always press the right key. A digital piano with all these learning tools is considered to be a pretty good one for a beginner.
Another important factor is your budget. Digital pianos have different features and specs, which will be reflected in the price. A digital piano can cost you as little as under $500 and may go up to thousands of dollars. Figure out what you want from your digital piano then set a price limit. Beginners should go for basic models that will help them to learn how to play rather than buying a digital piano with loads of features that will take them a long time to master and cost more money.
We have already discussed earlier that one of the main reasons that the digital pianos were invented was because of the issue of portability. If you do a lot of traveling, you should opt for a lighter, compact model. If travel isn't a concern, you can invest in a larger digital piano with more features. Top PickThe Casio Privia PX160BK is another great digital piano by Casio. This piano comes with 88 keys which is a must for a digital piano in order to replicate the acoustic piano. It comes with a technology known as PX-160, which enables it to generate multi-dimensional air sound quite easily. It also has a lot of other features. To top all this off, this piano also comes in with a three-year warranty. Premium ChoiceOne of the greatest digital pianos ever produced is the Yamaha YDP143R Arius Series Console Digital Piano. The sound quality of this piano is amazing. It comes with a pure CF sound engine for reproducing authentic acoustic piano sound. Its GHS weighted-action keys are lighter in the low keys and heavier in the high ones, for an authentic acoustic piano feel. It also comes equipped with a 2-track song recorder so that you can practice and record at the same time. Although a bit more expensive, when you look at all the features and specs it has, it's a worthwhile investment. Great ValueIf you are a beginner you won't find a better digital piano than this one. The Casio CTK2400 61- Key Portable Keyboard has everything you need as a beginner. It has a step-up learning system to help you learn to play. It also has 400 AHL Keyboard voices to give you versatility in addition to a voice percussion system. The Casio CTK2400 61- Key Portable Keyboard is perfect for beginners and is available at an unbelievably low price. What is Digital Piano?A digital piano is an electronic musical instrument that replicates the sound of a traditional acoustic piano. It was developed out of the need for more portable, compact, and less expensive options to the acoustic piano and offers beginner piano players an affordable option to learn the instrument. Many also come with a variety of features to enhance the playing experience. How to Choose a Digital Piano?There are some key considerations that should be kept in mind before you step into purchasing a digital piano for yourself or even for your child. We've outlined the things to bear in mind for you below. BudgetWhenever you are going for any product in the world you have a certain budget in your mind and the same goes for the digital pianos as well. You first need to decide on a budget then select the best possible option available in that particular budget. If you're a beginner who's purchasing a digital keyboard for the very first time, go for a less expensive model. Digital pianos are available in different price ranges starting from as low as under $200 and going up to thousands of dollars. Do your research to figure out what digital piano offers you the best value for money based on your needs. The Sound QualityAs we already have discussed earlier that the primary objective of a digital piano is to reproduce sound as realistic as that of an acoustic piano. The sound quality of the acoustic piano comes from its components. Digital pianos' sound quality comes from the samples used to create sounds which are dependent upon the digital memory of the piano. The more digital memory, the better the sound quality. Look closely into digital memory size before taking the plunge and buying a digital piano. Number of KeysWhen you look at acoustic pianos you will find that they have 88 keys. This is not the case with the digital pianos. Unless you're a digital artist or DJ, the best choice for you is a piano with 88 keys. If you're a DJ and are looking for turntables (click here for our full guide). If you're a beginner you should go for digital pianos that have 88 keys for a complete learning experience. Keyboard Action and Touch ResponseIt is not only important for a digital piano to sound like an acoustic piano, but also feel like the real thing. This is down to the type of keyboard action on your digital piano. Keyboard action types on digital pianos include semi-weighted, fully-weighted, and hammer action. The semi-weighted and the fully-weighted are good at imitating the feel of the real acoustic piano but the hammer action is the closest you'll get to the feel of an acoustic piano. Thoroughly consider what type of keyboard action comes with the digital piano that you are going to purchase. Touch response is another key factor. The better touch response your digital piano has, the closer it's going to feel like the real thing. Number of Sound and TonesMost digital pianos come equipped with hundreds of sounds and tones from different instruments. For a beginner, it's important to stick to the basic sounds while you're learning. The hundreds of sounds that your digital piano is equipped with might be of no use at all for you. On the other hand, intermediate players and pros might prefer a wide variety of sounds and tones to play around with. Read more reviews of Pianos here. Speakers and AmplifiersMost modern-day digital pianos are equipped with built-in speakers and amplifiers and they are an absolute must for digital pianos. If you're playing at home, you want your digital piano to produce sound without having to connect it to external speakers or amplifiers. Now if you look at a wider application for digital pianos or keyboards, you'll realize these built-in speakers and amplifiers aren't sufficient for live performances, so you'd want a digital piano with output options so you can connect external loudspeakers and amplifiers to it. What is Touch Response?Touch response relates to the keys of the piano. As we all know by now, digital pianos are electronic instruments and don't work the same way as a traditional acoustic piano. The keys of most digital pianos are velocity-sensitive keys and they can determine the sound by the force with which they are pressed. This is known to be the touch response of a digital piano. The Best Digital Piano for BeginnersWhen you have so much to choose from, picking the right digital piano for you can be a challenge. As a beginner, you want to keep things simple because it will take you time to learn the instrument and improve your playing level. Don't buy an expensive model when you're starting off. You can always upgrade down the line as your skills improve. Some of the best digital piano brands for beginners include:
We hope this guide has simplified digital pianos for you and will help you choose the best one for your needs. If you liked this review, please leave a positive rating:
For many musicians, a digital piano is a must they simply can’t live without. For this reason we thought it would be a good idea to make a list that can help you find the best digital piano under $1000. We have done a lot of research and found ten great instruments that we think you should consider in your piano hunt. No matter if you’re a beginner, an intermediate player or a professional, we’ve got something for everybody in this list! When you read through our reviews, make sure to check out the YouTube videos we’ve linked to as well, so that you can hear the pianos. After all, what they sound like is one of the most important things, right? We really hope that you will find this list useful, and we are also going to answer the most common questions first time piano buyers ask. Table of Contents
Choosing a new instrument can be a daunting and time-consuming task, but we’ve done our best to make it as easy as possible for you. But we would still recommend that you take some time out of your busy schedule and read carefully all the information we have gathered. Pour yourself some tea or coffee, relax in the sofa and make a nice moment of your piano shopping! Looking for a cheaper digital piano? Check out our guide and review on the top digital pianos under $500.
Your shortcut to our team's top 3 recommendations
Yamaha P115
Here is Our Review of the Top 10 Best Digital Pianos Under $1000:Let’s start off with a really good digital piano from Yamaha, P115. It’s a full-sized, 88 key piano and has weighted keys and graded hammer standard action, so it feels very nice to play. When you strike a key on an acoustic piano a graded hammer standard inside the piano strikes on the strings, and make the piano sound, and this piano imitates that feeling, so the harder you press, the louder the key will sound and so on. This piano has a few nice features, for example an app that you can use to change and save your settings. It has 14 different instrument sounds and you can get piano accompaniment by just pressing down a chord and letting the piano do the rest. The piano looks stylish and comes in black or white. Listen! The sound is sampled from a concert grand piano and sounds really good. The P115 and P45 which you’ll find as number three on this list are quite similar, so we really like this blind test where you can listen to them both without knowing which is which until after you’ve heard them. It’s a fun game as well! Watch this video on YouTube Pros: Why We Liked It - This is a great piano for all kinds of pianists, no matter if you’re a beginner or an advanced player. It sounds amazing and it’s a fun feature that you can control it using an app. If you are looking for a digital piano because you need to be able to turn the sound down and connect it to a computer or a tablet once in a while you might want to take a closer look at Yamaha YDP143R. It’s a console piano, so it looks a lot like an acoustic piano and has three pedals. If you have some space at home to dedicate to a piano, you can just as well choose this piano and get a really good instrument. Sure, it does take up a little more space than some of the others, but it looks really good, so that doesn’t matter. It’s available in dark rosewood and black walnut. The piano feels amazing to play since it has graded hammer weighted action keys and the sound is sampled from a concert grand piano, so this is about as good as digital pianos get. The low keys feel heavier and the high keys lighter, so it feels very natural to play. There is an app that you can use to change and save settings, which makes everything a bit easier. Listen! Curious about what Yamaha themselves have to say about this piano? Check out this video! Watch this video on YouTube Pros: Why We Liked It - If you are a pianist that is serious about your piano playing, you should get yourself one of these! It’s outstanding and will enable you to practice the piano at a lower volume but still keep the feel of an acoustic piano. If you want to buy a weighted action digital piano that is quite basic but still works well you might want to take a closer look at Yamaha P45. This is the perfect weighted action digital piano for those who don’t want too many buttons and extra stuff. It’s sleek and slim and is a good option if you live in a small apartment and don’t want a piano that takes up too much space. The piano has weighted keys and it’s nice to play with a ‘real piano’-feeling. The low and high notes react slightly different when you strike them, just like an acoustic piano. If you want to change the sound there are a few different instruments sounds to play around with, for example, organ and strings. Listen! Here is a great video review that will tell you everything you need to know about this piano. You’ll also hear all the different instrument sounds. Watch this video on YouTube Pros: Why We Liked It - If you are one of those people who view a digital piano as the second best option and would rather have an acoustic piano if you were able to, then you will like this piano. It’s nice to play and doesn’t have a lot of extra features that you’ll never use. It’s light-weight and slim and easy to move around as you please. ![]() Next up is a piano that is great if you love to be creative and sing while playing the piano. The Yamaha DGX-660 has a display that will show your sheet music and lyrics. You can connect the Yamaha DGX-660 to a computer and it has a microphone input. The Yamaha DGX-660 also has an accompaniment helper so that you can play a chord and get accompanied in the style you want. It has over 200 styles and even recommends styles that suit your song if you like! The Yamaha DGX-660 has an audio recorder and you can either connect it to your computer or save the music on a USB port stick. The piano is available in black and white. Pros: + Perfect for creative musicians Why We Liked It - This Yamaha DGX-660 is the perfect piano for creative musicians who love to perform and compose music. If you like singing you’re in luck- the piano has a microphone input and will show your lyrics on the display, so you’ll never forget the lyrics again! The piano has 200 different styles that it can accompany you in, the only thing you have to do is pick one (or play a few bars from your song and let the piano pick for you!) and play the chords. If looks are important to you you’ll love Casio Privia PX-160! It’s available in classic black, which is nice enough, but the piano really shines in the second color option which is a champagne goldish color that looks amazing. The piano is also very slim and sleek and is perfect if you want a compact piano that is easy to move around. The piano has 18 different instrument sounds and extremely good built-in speakers for this price point. If you want to record or compose music you can easily connect it to a table or computer with MIDI. Listen! Here is a good overview and demonstration of this piano that we think you should watch! Watch this video on YouTube Pros: Why We Liked It - You might ask yourself, “What is special about this piano? Why should I pick it over all the others?” The answer is: It looks great, which is the thing about it that stands out the most, but it also sounds wonderful and has really good built-in speakers. Check out the Casio Privia PX860 as an alternative. Many adult beginners wish that they would have time and money for piano lessons but know that they won’t be able to commit fully. Then this piano from Alesis might be a great alternative! A 3-month premium subscription for interactive piano lessons online is included with this piano, which is a good introduction to the instrument. This is a full-sized beginner piano that has an adjustable touch sensitive response, so you can choose how light or heavy the keys feel. Another good thing about this piano is that you can split the keyboard (known as split keyboards) into lesson mode so that you have to identical halves, making it easier for the teacher to demonstrate. You can also layer different instrument sounds, for example, if you want to play with both the string sound and piano sounds together. This beginner digital piano connects easily to a computer via USB MIDI if you want to record your music. You could also try a beginner keyboard here. Listen! Curious to learn more about this piano? Watch this video! Watch this video on YouTube Pros: Why We Liked It - This is a great piano for beginners that sounds wonderful and is nice to play. The 3-month subscription to online lessons is a big plus as well! If you want to find a console digital piano that is a really good substitute for an acoustic piano, this might be the right piano for you. It has three pedals and looks like a proper piano, if you know what we mean. The keys have an ivory feel and scaled hammer action so that it feels like playing an acoustic piano. It has a built-in metronome and a transposing feature and you can split the keyboard in half so that a teacher can demonstrate music in the right octave. You can also layer two sounds, for example, piano and strings. The piano is available in three different colors; black, white and brown. Listen! Here is a really good review that will tell you everything you need to know about this great piano! Watch this video on YouTube Pros: Why We Liked It - This is about as close as you can come to an acoustic piano. It gives you that real piano feeling and both the sounds and the feel are very nice. It has a 3-year manufacturer’s warranty, which is nice and it’s available in three different colors. Yamaha P71 is an Amazon exclusive piano and is a top digital piano. It’s full-sized and has ten different voices to play around with and it’s possible to layer two voices. The weighted action digital piano is very light and doesn’t take up much space. It’s a great addition to any apartment, no matter the size! You can connect it to a computer via USB, which is great if you like to compose and record music. Pros: Why We Liked It - It’s hard to find a reason not to buy this piano. It does exactly what it says on the box, it’s affordable and easy to move. All the qualities that are important in a digital piano! Let’s take a closer look at Casio PX860. It’s a full-sized piano with hammer action keys and touch sensitive response, which makes it really nice to play. You can even choose how sensitive the keys are, and there are three different levels of sensitivity. The piano sounds wonderful since the sound is sampled from a 9-foot concert piano. It also has three pedals (sustain pedal and power), so anything you can play on a regular piano, you can play on this as well. This digital piano even has a lid that you can choose to open if you want to change the tone manually, which makes it feel even more like a real piano. It comes with a 3-year manufacturer’s warranty, so you can feel safe. Pros: + Hammer action keys Why We Liked It - If you love playing classical music and you want the best piano sound you can get, but for some reason need to have a digital piano instead of an acoustic one, you should definitely consider this one. It sounds amazing and it even has a lid you can open! If you want to find something for your kids that’s not really a serious instrument but more like an upgraded toy, RockJam might be what you’re looking for. It’s clearly designed for children, and only has 61 keys. This is not the right instrument for little upcoming virtuosos, but more something you would buy for your kids to encourage them to explore music in a fun way. It has 100 rhythms and 100 different instrument sounds, and any kid would love to play around with different settings. They even include 30 free songs in the Piano Maestro app for iPad, which is an amazing resource that teaches kids the piano but feels more like a game than a chore. A stand is included as well as headphones and a stool. Listen! Here is the cutest unboxing video ever where you can learn more about this piano. Watch this video on YouTube Pros: Why We Liked It - Many musicians would hesitate calling this a proper musical instrument, but it’s still a great way for kids to become more interested in music and learn to play a few basic songs. $1000 Digital Piano Buyers GuideWe feel pretty pleased about this list, we’ve managed to find some really great pianos on the market and now it’s up to you to pick one that is perfect for you. If you find it hard to decide, try making a list of perhaps three different pianos that you’re choosing between and list the pros and cons. If you still have no idea which one to go for, try going to a music shop and play the pianos you are interested in. That will definitely help you decide! But what if you still feel like you don’t have any energy to read up on all ten instruments before you make your decision? In our buyer’s guide, we have answered the most common questions, for example, what pianos on the market suit beginners and advanced players. Hopefully, you will find that information helpful! And we would also want to recommend the YouTube videos we’ve linked to, which will also be a good tool to use. We wish you a happy piano hunt and hope that you’ll be able to find a piano that will bring you joy and musical experience for many years to come! What to Look for When Buying the Top Digital Piano under $1000?We recommend that you look for a piano that has 88 keys and weighted keys and weighted hammer action so that it feels like playing an acoustic piano. You should also look for a piano that has a sustain pedal included and MIDI controller, in case you want to connect it to your computer or perhaps a tablet or smartphone. Some pianists want to be able to choose between different voices, for example strings or wind instruments, so this is also something you should look into and consider what you want from your piano. Another good thing if you are taking or giving piano lessons is to be able to split the keyboard in two identical parts, so that the piano teacher can show the student without playing in the wrong octave. Different pianos will have different tools included, for example will pianos that are especially designed for beginners often include piano teaching software in the form of games or instructions that teach you to play different pieces, which can be a good complement to regular piano lessons. What Are the Top Headphones for Digital Piano?Sennheiser makes great headphones, for example their HD-280 PRO or HD 598 or their Momentum headphones. Consider buying over-ear headphones, since they are the most comfortable to wear when you’re playing. What Digital Piano for Beginners?We would recommend pianos on the market like Yamaha P115 and P45. Alesis Recital is also a great piano for beginners since they provide you with everything you need as a beginner. If you have a kid that you want to buy a piano for you could consider RockJam, which is somewhere in between a toy and a proper piano, it’s not a piano the kid can use for many years, but it will boost the enthusiasm for music and composing. What Digital Piano for Advance Pianist?Yamaha YDP143R is great for advanced pianists, we would say it’s almost as good as an acoustic piano. It’s a console piano with three pedals (sustain pedal and power) and amazing sound and feel, so it has everything you need. What Are the Top Piano Keyboard Brands?Yamaha and Casio are the two biggest brands when it comes to digital pianos and they have a lot to choose from. Roland also makes excellent pianos. What Is the Best Sounding Digital Piano?While this is a question that different people might answer differently we do have our favorites. We like Yamaha YDP143R a lot, and also Alesis Recital. Expert Tip:When it comes to musical instruments, you get what you pay for, so make sure to invest in a high-quality piano- you won’t regret it! Did you know?The world’s first completely electric piano was launched in 1973 by Roland. If you've enjoyed this review by Music Critic, please leave a positive rating:
Celebrating 35 Years Of Megadeth all year long. The Inaugural MEGACRUISE will hit the West Coast in 2019! Join us as we depart from Los Angeles on Sunday, October 13, 2019, for five days and nights of heavy metal decadence and debauchery! Whitesnake Tickets, Upcoming Schedule & Tour dates 2019. Feel free to follow Whitesnake 2019 schedule and Whitesnake upcoming tour dates 2019 at the ticket listing table above and book Whitesnake event tickets and event dates. The Entertainment and the Enjoyment you get at a Live Whitesnake Event are Nothing Compared to Watching it on TV!
Whitesnake are a hard rock band formed in England in 1978 by David Coverdale, after his departure from his previous band Deep Purple. Their early material has been compared by critics to the blues rock of Deep Purple, but they slowly began moving toward a more commercially accessible rock style.[2] By the turn of the decade, the band's commercial fortunes changed and they released a string of UK top 10 albums, Ready an' Willing (1980), Come an' Get It (1981), Saints & Sinners (1982) and Slide It In (1984), the last of which was their first to chart in the US and is certified 2x platinum. The band's 1987 self-titled album was their most commercially successful worldwide, and contained two major US hits, 'Here I Go Again' and 'Is This Love', reaching number one and two on the Billboard Hot 100. The album went 8 times platinum in the US,[3] and the band's success saw them nominated for the 1988 Brit Award for Best British Group.[4]Slip of the Tongue (1989) was also a success, reaching the top 10 in the UK and the US, and received a platinum US certification.[5] The band split up shortly after this release, but had a reunion in 1994, and released a one-off studio album, Restless Heart (1997). Whitesnake officially reformed in 2002 and have been touring together since, releasing four albums, Good to Be Bad (2008), Forevermore (2011), The Purple Album (2015) and Flesh & Blood (2019). In 2005, Whitesnake were named the 85th greatest hard rock band of all time by VH1.[1]
HistoryFormation (1978)David Coverdale founded Whitesnake in 1978[6][7] in Middlesbrough, Cleveland, north-east England. The core line-up had been working as his backing band The White Snake Band on the White Snake (1977) album tour and they retained the title before officially being known as Whitesnake. They toured with Coverdale as his support band and for both of the solo albums he released, White Snake (1977) and Northwinds (1978), between exiting Deep Purple and founding Whitesnake. At this time, the band was made up of David Coverdale, Bernie Marsden, Micky Moody, Neil Murray and drummer David 'Duck' Dowle with keyboardist Brian Johnston. Johnston would soon be replaced by Procol Harum organ player and keyboardist Pete Solley. Because of Solley's producing commitments he was replaced by the former Deep Purple keyboard player Jon Lord, during sessions for the first LP. Early years and commercial success (1978â1983)
Whitesnake at the Reading Festival in Reading, Berkshire, England, 1980
Whitesnake recorded the EP Snakebite, which was released in 1978 and included a cover of a Bobby 'Blue' Bland song 'Ain't No Love in the Heart of the City', their first hit song proving the new wave of British heavy metal could have a chart hit.[8] The EP had some success in the UK and subsequent reissues of this EP included four bonus tracks from Coverdale's second solo album Northwinds (1978) produced by Roger Glover. A blues rock debut album Trouble was released in the autumn of 1978 and peaked at No. 50 in the UK album charts. Whitesnake toured Europe to promote the album and their first live album Live at Hammersmith was recorded on this tour and released in Japan in 1979. Tracks from the EP Snakebite were included in a reissue of the album Trouble in 2006.
Whitesnake on stage at the Hammersmith Odeon, London, 1981
Whitesnake released Lovehunter in 1979, which courted controversy due to its risqué album cover by artist Chris Achilleos, which contained an illustration of a naked woman straddling a coiled snake. The album made the UK Top 30 and contained the minor hit 'Long Way from Home', which reached No. 55 in the single charts. Shortly after that, drummer Ian Paice replaced David Dowle. giving Whitesnake three ex-Deep Purple members. The new line-up recorded the 1980 release Ready an' Willing (1980), which was a breakthrough hit for the band, reaching the UK Top 10 and becoming their first entry into the U.S. Top 100. The single 'Fool for Your Loving', which the band originally wrote for B.B. King, made No. 13 in the UK single charts and No. 53 in the US, and the title track also hit No. 43 in the UK charts.[9]The Ready an' Willing tour included the Saturday night headline appearance at the 1980 Reading Festival, the highlights of which were broadcast by BBC Radio 1 in the UK. While still mostly unknown in the US, the modest success of Ready an' Willing (1980) helped Whitesnake increase awareness there as an opening act for established bands such as Jethro Tull and AC/DC.[10] The band also released Live...In the Heart of the City, which contained recordings made in 1978 and 1980 at the Hammersmith Odeon in London, and achieved a No. 5 ranking in the UK album charts.[9] In 1981 the band recorded the album Come an' Get It, which climbed to No. 2 in the UK album charts and produced the Top 20 hit 'Don't Break My Heart Again' and the Top 40 hit 'Would I Lie to You'. During 1982 Coverdale took time off to look after his sick daughter and decided to put Whitesnake on hold. When David Coverdale returned to music, he reformed the band, and after the recording of the album Saints & Sinners (1982) replaced Bernie Marsden, Ian Paice, and bass player Neil Murray with Mel Galley from Trapeze, bassist Colin Hodgkinson, and Cozy Powell as the new drummer. Saints & Sinners was another Top 10 UK album and contained the hit 'Here I Go Again', with Malcolm Birch from Chesterfield-based band Pegasus on keyboards. The new lineup toured in 1982â83 and headlined the Monsters of Rock Festival at Castle Donington UK in August 1983, and the single 'Guilty of Love' reached No. 31 in the UK singles chart.[9] Breakthrough and change in musical style (1983â1985)
Whitesnake performing live in 1983
In late 1983, the band recorded Slide It In, which was released in Europe in early 1984. It was the band's fourth top 10 album in their native UK, peaking at number 9.[9] At this time, the band secured a major US deal with the Geffen label. Slide It In drew mixed reviews, the negatives focusing on its 'flat' mix.[11] While a personnel change saw the touring band replace Moody with former Thin Lizzy guitarist John Sykes, plus the return of bassist Neil Murray in place of Hodgkinson,[12] producer David Geffen insisted that the album be remixed for the US release. In addition to the remix, Sykes and Murray re-recorded the lead guitar and bass parts. This revised version of the album had its US release in April 1984. Despite Coverdale's misgivings regarding the lack of edge in these new tracks, Slide It In scraped the US Top 40, and went double platinum there three years later after the release of the band's eighth album.[3]Slide It In spawned the album-oriented rock hits in the US: 'Slow an' Easy', 'Love Ain't No Stranger', and the title track. 'I didn't really work Americaâ¦' the singer admitted. 'In '84, I had broken all attendance records and merchandise records in Europe but I still lost three grand. My marriage was in tatters and then David Geffen called up and said, 'It is about time that you took America seriously.' There was nothing to keep me in London â so, rather than taking potshots at America from across the pond, I decided to relocate, and had an extraordinary four or five years.'[13] While touring in spring 1984, Mel Galley suffered a broken arm in an accident, leaving John Sykes as the sole guitarist for the remaining dates. A few weeks later, Jon Lord left to reform Deep Purple Mk. II, and keyboard player Richard Bailey was brought in. The band was booked in the US to open for acts such as Dio and Quiet Riot. The tour ended with a performance in front of a crowd of over 100,000 people, at the Rock in Rio festival held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Galley remained a member â 'he's still getting paid', said Coverdale â until Galley rashly discussed plans to reform Trapeze in an interview and Coverdale fired him. The self-titled album and success in the US (1985â1988)
Coverdale (left) and John Sykes (right) co-wrote the 1987 album together
Starting in 1985, Coverdale and Sykes began writing the material for a follow-up studio album.[14] The approach was more modern, adding a slick Eighties studio polish to a band that up until Slide It In (1984) had a bluesier sound rooted in the Seventies. Sykes would play the rhythm and lead guitars for almost the entire album. Cozy Powell had left to join Emerson, Lake & Powell. Two musicians from the north of England were brought in for the recording of the album: drummer Aynsley Dunbar, and keyboardist Don Airey from the Ozzy Osbourne band and Rainbow. The album was put on hold for much of 1986, when Coverdale contracted a serious sinus infection that put his singing career in jeopardy. He eventually recovered, and the Whitesnake album was finished in 1987. But shortly before the album's release, Coverdale had dismissed Sykes. Adrian Vandenberg and Vivian Campbell mimed Sykes' guitar parts in the videos and played in subsequent live shows. The album was entitled 1987 in Europe and Serpens Albus in Japan and marked the band's biggest mainstream success in the US. With the guidance of A&R guru John Kalodner, it has sold 8x platinum in the US.[3] The success of Whitesnake (1987) also pushed sales of Slide It In (1984) from its RIAA certified gold status to platinum status, and made the band a bona fide arena headliner for the first time in North America. The album continued to sell throughout 1987 and 1988, peaking at No. 2 in the US, and No. 8 in the UK.[9][15] The album was their most commercially successful, and in 1988, they were nominated for the Brit Award for Best British Group.[4] The album's biggest hits were 'Here I Go Again' (#1 US Billboard Hot 100 and No. 9 UK Singles Chart) and power ballad 'Is This Love' (#2 US and No. 9 UK).[9][16] 'Here I Go Again' was a re-recording of a song originally on 1982's Saints & Sinners, and another track on Saints & Sinners, 'Crying in the Rain', was also a redone song. Other hit singles from the album were 'Still of the Night' (#16 UK and No. 79 US) and 'Give Me All Your Love' (#18 UK and No. 48 US in 1988).[9][16] The album's exposure was boosted by heavy airplay of its music videos on MTV. The videos starred actress Tawny Kitaen, whom Coverdale later married and also included new band members Adrian Vandenberg, Rudy Sarzo, Tommy Aldridge and Vivian Campbell (who also re-recorded the solo for the 'Give Me All Your Love' single remix). With the exception of Vandenberg (whose only work on the album was the solo on 'Here I Go Again'), none of the band members who played on the album appeared in the videos, as they had been fired by Coverdale. While some long-time fans viewed the 1987 album as a sell-out and attempt to pander to mainstream tastes at the time, Coverdale was still reaching back to his musical roots, including most prominently Led Zeppelin, but even older artists like Elvis. 'I remember the Jailhouse Rock EP,' Coverdale said. 'Itâs interesting because you donât know what it is, but it gets you fluffed up. And âJailhouse Rockâ, contrary to what a lot of people imagine, was the inspiration for the verses of âStill of the Nightâ.'[17] Slip of the Tongue and more success (1988â1990)
Vandenberg and Coverdale backstage at the Monsters of Rock at Castle Donington in England, 1990. Playing to 75,000, the band's headline performance was released as Live at Donington 1990.[18]
Guitarist Vivian Campbell left Whitesnake in late 1988 due to creative differences, and so the band's line-up changed yet again for the 1989 album Slip of the Tongue. Although he co-wrote all of the songs, while preparing for the recording of the album, guitarist Adrian Vandenberg sustained a serious wrist injury, making it impossible for him to play without experiencing great discomfort. Coverdale had no choice but to find a new guitar player to record the parts. He eventually found former Frank Zappa and David Lee Roth guitar player Steve Vai, whom Coverdale had seen in the 1986 film Crossroads. Upon its release, Slip of the Tongue (1989) sold three million copies and hit No. 10 in both the US and UK album charts.[9][15] The album also spawned three successful singles: a reworking of the band's 1980 classic 'Fool for Your Loving' (#37 US and No. 43 UK), the melodic 'The Deeper the Love' (#28 US and No. 35 UK) and 'Now You're Gone' (#31 UK and No. 96 US).[9][16] Steve Vai became an official member of the band and appeared in all of the band's new music videos. With Vai and Vandenberg both as a full-time members, the band hit the road to support the album. During the Liquor and Poker tour for Slip of the Tongue, the band headlined the 1990 Monsters of Rock festival at Donington Park, England (their third time appearing and second headlining). After the last show of the Liquor and Poker tour in 1990, Coverdale decided he would fold the band. Coverdale announced that he would be taking a break from the music business, but the next year he started to work with former-Led Zeppelin guitarist, Jimmy Page, which resulted in the album Coverdaleâ¢Page (1993). Vandenberg, Sarzo, and Aldridge remained together, forming the new band Manic Eden. Greatest Hits, Restless Heart and Starkers in Tokyo (1994â1998)A new line-up of the band was assembled for 1994's Whitesnake's Greatest Hits album. They embarked on a short tour in Europe, with former Ratt guitarist Warren DeMartini playing lead guitar, drummer Denny Carmassi, the return of bassist Rudy Sarzo and guitarist Adrian Vandenberg, and the addition of keyboard player Paul Mirkovich before their recording contract with Geffen expired. In 1997 Coverdale and Vandenberg re-grouped to work together on a new Whitesnake album Restless Heart. This was originally to be a solo album for Coverdale, but the record company pressured them to release it under the Whitesnake name. However, despite a release in both Japan and Europe, it was never available officially in the US. The album marked a return to the band's earlier R&B music. The album reached the UK Top 40 album chart and produced the blues ballad 'Too Many Tears', which reached No. 46 on the UK singles chart.[9] A core line-up of Coverdale, Carmassi and Vandenberg was supplemented by Pink Floyd touring bassist Guy Pratt and Coverdale and Page keyboardist Brett Tuggle during recording sessions and by Mr. Mister guitarist Steve Farris, keyboardist Derek Hilland and The Firm bassist Tony Franklin during the ensuing tour. During the tour, Coverdale and Vandenberg also recorded an unplugged show in Japan entitled Starkers in Tokyo (released in 1998). The two also played another unplugged show, this time for VH1. In the end of '97, Coverdale folded the band at the end of the tour, and took another break from the music business. 25th anniversary reformation (2002â2007)![]()
Whitesnake performing in June 2003
In December 2002 Coverdale reformed Whitesnake for Whitesnake's 25th anniversary the upcoming year. Joining Coverdale for a 2003 tour were guitarists Doug Aldrich of Dio and Reb Beach of Winger, bass player Marco Mendoza, drummer Tommy Aldridge and keyboard player Timothy Drury. During 2003 they headlined the Rock Never Stops Tour with other popular rock bands. The anniversary tour line up remained stable until early 2005, when Mendoza left to pursue the Soul SirkUS project and was replaced by Uriah Duffy. In February 2006, Whitesnake released a live DVD titled, Live... In the Still of the Night, and announced a Spring and Summer tour of Japan and Europe. In June 2006 it was announced Coverdale had signed Whitesnake to a new record deal with Steamhammer/SPV Records who released a double live album entitled, Live: In the Shadow of the Blues during November 2006 in UK, Germany, Switzerland and Austria. The album had tracks recorded since 2003, and also included four new studio tracks: 'Ready to Rock', 'If You Want Me', 'All I Want Is You' and 'Dog'. These songs were described by Coverdale as 'three balls-to-the-walls rockers and a ballad'.[citation needed] In June 2007 the band released a dual CD/DVD titled 1987 20th Anniversary Collector's Edition to mark the 20th anniversary of the mega-selling album 1987. This was the re-mastered album along with a host of bonus material of four live tracks from the Shadow of the Blues Live set. It also includes the four promo videos for the album on the DVD.[19] In December 2007 Aldridge left the band, and was replaced by Chris Frazier, who had previously worked with Eddie Money, Edgar Winter and The Tak Matsumoto Group.[20] Good to Be Bad and back on the road (2008â2010)
Whitesnake performing at the Arrow Rock Festival in Nijmegen, Holland, June 2008
In March 2008 Whitesnake played at the Rock2Wgtn two-day festival alongside Ozzy Osbourne, Kiss, Poison, Alice Cooper and Lordi, with special effects by the Academy Award winning WETA Workshop. In April 2008 the band released their tenth studio album, Good to Be Bad, which reached No. 5 in the UK Album Chart.[19] During the summer of 2008 Whitesnake co-headlined a UK tour along with Def Leppard,[21] with Black Stone Cherry opening the UK arena shows in June and Thunder opening the July shows. In early November 2008, Whitesnake received the Classic RockBest Album award for Good to Be Bad. On 11 February 2009, Whitesnake announced they would be playing a festival slot at Download Festival in England on 14 June via their official website. They also announced Def Leppard would be playing on the same day as the headliners. It was also announced that Whitesnake, and Journey would play The O2 in Dublin as support for headliners Def Leppard on 12 June 2009. On 17 March 2009, it was announced that Whitesnake would be supporting Judas Priest on the 2009 North American Summer tour. On 11 August 2009 Whitesnake was playing a show at Red Rocks in Morrison, Colorado, when front man David Coverdale suffered a vocal injury. After seeing a specialist, it was announced on 12 August 2009 that Coverdale was suffering from severe vocal fold edema and a left vocal fold vascular lesion, and the band had to withdraw from the remainder of Judas Priest tour. In early February 2010, David Coverdale announced that his voice seemed to have fully recovered from the trauma that sidelined him and the band on the Priest tour. He stated that he had been recording new demos, aiming for a new Whitesnake album. In June 2010, Whitesnake announced they would be releasing their own wine, a 2008 Zinfandel, described by David Coverdale as 'filled to the brim with the spicy essence of sexy, slippery Snakeyness ... I recommend it to complement any & all grown up friskiness & hot tub jollies ...' [22] On 18 June 2010, it was announced that Whitesnake had parted ways with bassist Uriah Duffy and drummer Chris Frazier and that their new drummer is former Billy Idol drummer Brian Tichy.[23] On 20 August 2010, Whitesnake announced that their new bassist was to be Michael Devin.[24] On 13 September 2010, keyboardist Timothy Drury announced his departure from Whitesnake to pursue a solo career.[24] Drury has returned as a guest musician to record keyboards for the band's 2011 album Forevermore.[25] Forevermore (2011â2015)
Coverdale performing with the band at the Manchester Apollo, Manchester, England in 2011
Whitesnake released Forevermore, on 25 March 2011 in Europe, and on 29 June in North America.[26] In February 2011, Whitesnake was announced as one of the headliners to play the annual Rocklahoma festival in Pryor, Oklahoma, on Memorial Day weekend. A digital single for the song 'Love Will Set You Free' was released, along with a video for the song, on 21 February.[26] The album Forevermore was released as a special edition 'Snakepack' through Classic Rock magazine on 25 March 2011, a full 3 weeks before its commercial release. The fan pack includes the full, official new album Forevermore, a 132-page magazine, poster and pin badge. On 20 March 2011, Whitesnake announced that Brian Ruedy would play keyboards on the Forevermore World Tour.[27] A live album, Live at Donington 1990, was released on 20 May 2011 in Japan, on 3 June in Europe and 7 June in the US.[28]
Whitesnake performing in June 2011
In July 2012, David Coverdale said that a live album and DVD from the Forevermore tour were in production, as well as expanded editions of 'Into the Light' and 'Restless Heart'.[29] The album did not chart highly upon its official release in the UK (number 33, possibly due to the copies released as part of the aforementioned Classic Rock Snakepack, which are not eligible for the charts). It did, however, show signs of Whitesnake's slow rebuild of support in the US with the album charting at number 49 â the band's highest charting album since the 80s. In November 2012, Whitesnake and Journey (along with special guests Thunder) announced an eight date UK Tour in 2013, where the two bands will appear onstage together for the first time ever.[30] Drummer Brian Tichy announced on 4 January 2013 that he had left Whitesnake in order to focus on his other band, S.U.N.[31] According to Whitesnake, the band planned to continue its 2013 touring as scheduled and had already begun to look for a new drummer. On 25 January 2013, it was announced that former drummer Tommy Aldridge would be rejoining the band.[31] On 13 February 2013, Whitesnake announced a new live DVD/album, Made in Japan, which had been recorded at the band's performance at the Loud Park Festival in Saitama, Japan on 15 October 2011, with release scheduled for 23 April on Frontiers Records.[32] On 9 May 2014, it was announced that guitarist Doug Aldrich would leave Whitesnake.[33] On 21 August 2014, Joel Hoekstra (former Night Ranger) was announced as their new guitarist. The Purple Album (2015â2016)
Whitesnake on stage in New Haven, Connecticut, July 2015
On 25 February, it was announced The Purple Album would contain re-recorded Coverdale era songs of Deep Purple. The new cover album was released 15 May 2015 via Frontiers Records. On 17 April 2015, the Italian vocalist and instrumentalist Michele Luppi (Secret Sphere, former Vision Divine) was announced as their new keyboardist and backing vocalist, replacing Brian Ruedy.[34] The album reached number 18 on the UK Albums Chart and debuted at #84 on the Billboard 200 album chart in the US.[35] The band embarked on a worldwide tour dubbed The Greatest Hits during the summer of 2016.[36] Flesh & Blood (2017-present)In August 2017, Whitesnake signed a distribution deal with Rhino Entertainment in North America and Japan and internationally through Parlophone, covering most of their albums, including their 1987 self-titled album and a new studio album in 2018.[37] In September 2017, the band announced that their next album was set for a tentative spring 2018 release.[38] The album was later titled Flesh & Blood, which would be released in early 2018.[39] It was pushed back for a summer 2018 release, but was then delayed until February 2019 due to 'technical issues'. The band apologized for the delay and would embark on the Flesh & Blood World Tour to coincide with the album's release.[40] Members
TimelineDiscography
Tours
Notes
References and further reading
External links
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Whitesnake&oldid=898485969'
WHITESNAKE frontman David Coverdale has issued the following update: 'We are busily mixing and editing a live album and a separate in-concert DVD from the 'Forevermore' world tour, plus mixing an special expanded editions of 'Into The Light' and 'Restless Heart'. Plus archiving so much audio and visual material and content from so many years. But [we're] definitely not [working on] a whole new studio album at this time. Quite simply we wouldn't have time to write and record a new studio album. It was never on our agenda for 2012.' WHITESNAKE's new album, 'Forevermore', sold around 12,000 copies in the United States in its first week of release to debut at position No. 49 on The Billboard 200 chart. The CD was recorded, produced and mixed by Los Bros Brutalos (Coverdale, Doug Aldrich and Michael McIntyre). WHITESNAKE's 'Live At Donington 1990' DVD/live double CD set was made available on June 3, 2011 in Europe and June 7, 2011 in North America via Frontiers Records. WHITESNAKE 1990 featured guitar greats Steve Vai and Adrian Vandenberg, bassist Rudy Sarzo, drummer Tommy Aldridge and, of course, incomparable frontman David Coverdale. The 'Live At Donington' 1990 DVD also includes a substantial gallery of never-before-seen stills of the band on the 'Liquor & Poker World Tour 1990', plus an intimate behind-the-scenes documentary of the making-of the 'Slip Of The Tongue' album. Results 1 - 48 of 1764 - A/C Accumulator for 00-05 Cadillac Deville Olds Aurora Pontiac Bonneville 83225. AC Compressor Clutch Fits 2001-2003 Oldsmobile Aurora R97480 (Fits: Oldsmobile Aurora). The picture listed on this. ![]() Items in search results
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